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Trust for Representative Democracy Home Page
Lesson Plan Table of Contents

Appreciating Democracy: A Lesson Plan for High School Teachers of
Civics, Government, and U.S. History

An Overview of the Lesson

Item A
Background, objectives and methods for teachers

This lesson on appreciating democracy is designed mainly for civics and American government courses taught at the high-school level. It can also be used in courses on American history. It is at the very core of American government and politics, and practically every other lesson needs to be built on it. It is adapted to state standards for civics and government. The lesson has been developed by Alan Rosenthal, professor of public policy at the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University, and Greer Burroughs, adjunct professor of education at Seton Hall University and a former social studies teacher.

The "Appreciating Democracy" project is sponsored by several organizations that are collaborating on the teaching of civic education on representative democracy: the National Conference of State Legislatures, the Center for Civic Education, and the Center on Congress at Indiana University through the Representative Democracy in America project. Also sponsoring this project is the Dirksen Congressional Center in Illinois.

The lesson that follows reflects the research and writing of four political scientists, who are students of Congress, state legislatures, and public opinion. The work of John Hibbing of the University of Nebraska, Burdett Loomis of the University of Kansas, Karl Kurtz of the National Conference of State Legislatures, and Rosenthal is contained in a book designed mainly for introductory American government courses at the college level: Republic On Trial: The Case For Representative Democracy (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003).

Democracy is not easy to appreciate. Nor should it be. It is filled with conflict, it is extremely human, and it is very messy. That is the way it ought to be.

Although it is essentially as it should be (notwithstanding that democratic institutions and processes are not perfect and are always in need of improvement), democracy gets a bad rap, especially as it is practiced in Congress and state legislatures. The environment in America today is not a friendly one for the actual practices and political institutions that work at democracy.

The electronic and print media are critical of political institutions and practices. They report what is bad, or appears bad, or what is scandalous, or might appear scandalous. The media's business is to stay in business-by attracting an audience. People respond more to the negative than to the positive. Hence, if it's bad, it's news and the worse it is, the better it is as news.

The negative is central to political campaigns, where competition is intense.

Candidates nowadays not only compare their opponent's record with their own, they also look for anything negative about an opponent's character, associations, and even personal life. Candidates employ negative campaigns because they appear to work.

Advocates for one issue or another criticize the congressional and legislative systems, because they are not able to enact the policies or get the funding they believe their agendas merit. No one is ever entirely happy with what a legislature produces; a number of people and groups are unhappy, however, because they believe that they deserve considerably more than they get.

Winston Churchill's comment about democracy is most appropriate: "It has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Given the number of legislators in the 50 states (7,382) and members of Congress (535), the more than 200,000 bills introduced in a two-year period, and the millions of transactions that take place in Congress and the 50 state legislatures, there are bound to be people who do wrong and things that go wrong. When discovered, these are the cases reported extensively by the media, as they should be. Americans, however, generalize from the relatively few instances to all or most instances. They continue to like and reelect their own congressperson or state legislator but, as public opinion polls show, they don't like the rest--and they do not like the Congress or the legislature or the "system".

The environment is a rough one, but the most important obstacle democracy faces is that Americans simply do not appreciate what democracy means in practice. In theory, we all revere democracy and support certain principles that underlie it. But we are uncomfortable with the nitty-gritty workings of democracy. It is unappealing to the average eye.

First, Americans do not see why there is so much conflict in politics. Research by political scientists has shown that many Americans think that most people agree on basic issues of public policy. So why is there so much fighting in Congress and state legislatures? To some extent people are correct. At a very general level, Americans are in agreement. They want better schools, better health care, better highways. But there is disagreement over how to achieve these general goals, how to prioritize expenditures, and whether to raise taxes to pay for them. The more specific the issue becomes, the greater the disagreement. It is said that the devil is in the details, and lawmaking is a detailed business. It is easy to believe that most people agree because we live in relatively homogeneous political communities or deal with people who tend to be politically alike. In the nation at large, however, there is sharp disagreement on issues such as abortion, guns, the death penalty, and gay rights, to name only a few. Still there may be substantial agreement in different communities. For example, a poll in USA TODAY showed that in Montclair, New Jersey, about 75 percent of residents agreed on a number of major issues and in Franklin, Tennessee about the same proportion agreed. But the residents of Montclair and Franklin agreed in opposite directions. If nothing else, close and sharp division between Republicans and Democrats at the national level and in many of the states attests to the division in the ranks of Americans.

Second, because they do not see the existence of differences in the public, Americans do not see the need for conflict in Congress and state legislatures. "We all know what's right, so why don't they just do it," is the dominant attitude. Survey research and focus group studies have demonstrated that people want action, and not deliberation which they regard as "bickering." They find stalemate unsatisfactory when the two sides cannot get together, yet they regard compromise as "selling out." Americans, in short, are not in sympathy with the way in which issues get settled in democratic politics.

Since democracy appreciation does not come naturally, it has to be taught--just as music and art appreciation have to be taught. This is offered as a first, and a fundamental, lesson in appreciating democracy.¹ It has three principal objectives:

1. To develop in students an understanding of the differences in values, interests, priorities, and opinions that exist in a diverse society such as ours. The differences that exist are normal in a democracy and should be respected, not regretted.
2. To develop in students familiarity with different methods used in settling conflicts among values, interests, priorities, and opinions in our democracy. The methods that are of concern are deliberation, negotiation (including compromise), and decision by voting.
3. To develop in students an awareness that differences among people and deliberation, compromise, and voting exist not only in contemporary political life. They exist in one's personal, family, school, and work life as well. They also exist in historical events, such as the framing of the US Constitution. There is nothing arcane or mystical about the processes that are the focus of this lesson. Yet many Americans don't get it.

A number of concepts are central to the current exploration. They are briefly defined below.

1. Agreement or consensus. What degree of agreement is necessary? When does a consensus exist? Although a majority rules, a 51-49 split indicates sharp division, not agreement. We should consider agreement or consensus on an issue to be something like a 65-35 division, or more likely a 50-25 division with another 25 percent without an opinion or position. There is no absolute rule as to what constitutes agreement or consensus, but it is a topic that the class should explore. And even when there is a consensus, some people will still have contrary views.
2. Deliberation is a process in which each side tries to convince the other of its own position and ideas, and each side is open to being convinced by the other. This does not mean that everybody on one side is open to persuasion, but rather that a healthy number of people are. In deliberation arguments are made on the merits of the case and how each proposal will advance the public interest in some way. Most of the discussion that takes place in Congress and state legislatures is of a deliberative nature. It revolves around the merits, as seen by various participants in the process.
3. Negotiation supplements deliberation as a tool for reaching a settlement. In negotiating it is no longer a question of persuading the other side on the basis of a substantive argument. Each side is firm in its beliefs, but may be willing to give in, in order to reach a settlement. There are many possibilities in negotiating, but the main ingredient is a compromise of one sort or another. In a compromise each side gives up some of what it wants in order to get something. For example, Participant A is willing to delete a provision from a bill to which Participant B objects, but only if B is willing to delete a provision to which A objects. That is a compromise. A budgetary example is probably the easiest to understand. If the bill passed by the senate has an appropriation of $50 million for an automobile inspection system, but the bill passed by the house appropriates only $30 million for that purpose, the natural compromise position would be $40 million. In the legislative process individuals compromise, legislative parties compromise, the senate and the house compromise, and the legislature and the executive compromise.
4. A decision has to be reached for a settlement to be achieved. In our system of representative democracy majority rule is an overarching principle. Although majorities rule, another overarching principle is that minority's rights must be protected. The tension between majority rule and minority rights is evident in legislative bodies. Here, decisions as to a settlement are decided by a majority vote but a minority has a say in the process. A majority of those voting, or those authorized to vote, must concur for a bill to be passed. In some instances an extraordinary majority is required. That is the case in the U.S. Senate where a three-fifths vote is necessary to bring debate to an end, or to stop a filibuster. An override of a president or governor's veto also requires more than a simple majority. In less formal circumstances, a consensus may be arrived at without an actual vote being taken. Often, however, a settlement cannot be worked out. Proponents and opponents will not compromise. One side may win because it has the votes or a stalemate may be the outcome.

In order to develop an understanding of differences and settlements in political life, three simple activities are proposed. Each of the three can be done with 10 to 30 students in a 45-minute class period. A fourth 45-minute period is also recommended in order to reinforce and broaden the lesson learned in the first three periods. A teacher may choose to use two, or conceivably only one activity, instead of all three. But the three-plus-one together are the best package.

Activity l, Period l Differences and settlements in ordinary life. Students as a group have to decide on where to have dinner. They can choose from among a number of restaurants, for each of which there is a brief restaurant review. If-and only if-the students agree on a single restaurant will the school principal foot the bill for dinner. Do students have different preferences? How do they go about reaching a settlement so that they can be treated to a meal?

Activity 2, Period 2 Differences and settlement in framing the U.S. Constitution. Students are assigned roles as delegates representing one of the twelve states at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. They have to decide what is in their state's interest, as far as representation in a new governmental structure is concerned. The choice, just as it existed in the eighteenth century, is whether each state should have equal representation or whether representation should be based on the size of a state's population. If nine states do not come into agreement, a new constitution and new nation may not come into being. How do students figure out what their state's interests are? How do the delegations go about trying to reach agreement on representation in the legislative branch of the new government?

Activity 3, Period 3 Differences and settlement in the legislative budget process. Students are assigned to one of four subcommittees of an appropriations committee of a state legislature. Each subcommittee-education, health, welfare, and homeland security-has responsibility for important new programs proposed by the governor. The state constitution requires that the budget be balanced, but current projections are for a revenue shortfall of $500 million. Either the budget has to be cut by $500 million or the sales tax has to be raised to produce the revenue needed. Or a budget cut and tax increase can be combined. State public opinion polls show that people favor the proposed programs, but do not want to pay a higher sales tax. What do students on the four subcommittees and full committee do in order to balance the budget?

Student Assignments Students will be asked to reach a settlement-agreeing on a restaurant, adopting a plan for representation at the Constitutional Convention, and balancing the state budget.

Teacher Observations The teacher will monitor each activity, noting on an observer worksheet: (a) how and why students differed in their initial positions; (b) how deliberation and negotiation (and particularly compromise) were employed in efforts to reach a settlement; and (c) how a decision was finally effected-by majority vote, two-thirds vote, unanimity, informal consensus, or perhaps no decision could be reached.

Debriefing After the activity, the teacher will debrief the students on what went on and how students felt about it. The teacher's contribution to the debriefing will depend largely on his/her observations of the activity itself. The debriefing should focus on: (a) how and why did students differ in their initial positions? (b) how were deliberation and negotiation (and particularly compromise) employed by students in an effort to reach a settlement? (c) how was a decision finally made-by a majority vote, two-thirds vote, or wasn't an agreement arrived at? (d) how did students feel about the experience-was the process fair, was the settlement fair?

Wrap-up, Period 4 The wrap-up session will reinforce and expand on what students have already learned. These are the questions that should be addressed in the wrap-up:

1. What do students know or appreciate now that they didn't know or appreciate before the class undertook these activities and discussions? In short, what do students think they have learned from this lesson?
2. What are the differences between the processes of disagreeing and settling in personal (family, friends, workplace) life and disagreeing and settling in political life, that is in a legislative body?
3. Instead of requiring students to agree on the restaurant, would it have been better for the principal to decide on his/her own? What kind of political system would that type of decision-making fit in with? What are the advantages and disadvantages of an autocratic political system?
4. Instead of having nine states come into agreement, what might have happened if only seven states had agreed on the issue of representation? Might the effort to draft a new constitution have failed? Are there times when an extraordinary majority is needed? What actually did happen at the Constitutional Convention and how specifically was the representation issue settled? What do students think of the actual settlement?
5. Why shouldn't states submit the budget question to a vote of eligible voters. Let the people decide. This would be a manifestation of direct democracy, rather than representative democracy whereby people elect legislators whose job it is to represent the interests of their constituents and constituencies. What would be the benefits of direct democracy, with referendums on the budget as well as issues? What would be the disadvantages?

The teacher may choose to assign students written work to be done at home, either before, between periods, or at the conclusion of the lesson. Possible assignments are as follows:

1. Describe instances of disagreement within your family and how they were settled, making use of the concepts being studied here (deliberation, negotiation, compromise, and decision).
2. Should representative democracy be practiced more in this school? What are the arguments for greater democracy and what are the arguments against it?
3. Discuss decision-making within some group or organization to which you belong. How democratically is it run?
4. Describe how the framers of the U.S. Constitution handled and finally settled the issue of representation in the new Congress.
5. Discuss how budgets are formulated, reviewed, and enacted in your state, paying particular attention to differences and disagreements.
6. Choose the issue of abortion, gay rights, or guns and explore how the public divides on these issues. How are such issues dealt with by your legislature?

Students should be expected to learn a number of things about American politics and representative democracy, most of which can be assessed by a written test. As a result of this lesson, and mainly the activities and debriefings, students ought to understand: (a) the existence of differences in values, interests, priorities, and opinions among Americans; (b) settlements of these differences by means of deliberation, negotiation, compromise, and voting; and (c) that the process of working through conflict is often difficult.

The following questions are illustrative of ones that can be employed on a test.

1. What is the major reason for conflict in Congress and state legislatures:

1. Representatives are jockeying for position in order to be reelected
2. Legislative leaders take extreme positions and other legislators follow them
3. People who are represented don't agree on important issues
4. The processes by which Congress and state legislatures operate are designed to promote conflict

2. Generally speaking, how do disagreements over policy issues get resolved in Congress and state legislatures? Describe three processes or ways in which settlements are reached?
3. Many people believe that it is not necessary for Congress and state legislatures to spend a lot of time debating issues, but they should just take action and get things done. Do you agree or disagree with this point of view? Explain why.
4. Which of the following best defines "deliberation" as it takes place in a legislative body?

1. Legislators engage in trading votes in order to build consensus on a measure
2. Each party rallies its members to stand together firmly in support or opposition to a measure
3. Legislators poll their constituents to find out what people in their districts think and want
4. Proponents and opponents of a measure argue the merits of their case and legislators on each side are open to persuasion

5. Which of the following constitutes a "compromise" in trying to reach a settlement in a legislature?

1. "My way or the highway"
2. "You give on this point, I'll give on that one"
3. "Just put it to a vote, and we'll see who wins"
4. "This is what has to be done in the public interest"

6. Many Americans believe that compromise is selling out. Do you agree or disagree with this belief? Explain.
7. What is the principal decision rule in a legislative body?

1. Any legislator can pass a bill if he/she works hard enough
2. Public opinion polls determine whether a measure is enacted into law
3. A majority is necessary to pass a bill
4. Everyone has to agree if a bill is to be enacted

8. What definition best applies to "representative democracy" as it operates in the United States?

1. A system in which people elect representatives who act on their behalf
2. A system in which people instruct their elected representative as to how to vote on issues
3. A system in which the executive initiates policy and the legislature accepts of rejects it
4. A system in which the membership of a legislative body mirrors the population of the state in terms of characteristics such as gender, race, etc.

9. Which of the following are strong arguments against direct democracy? Check as many as apply.

1. Issues are too complex for people to decide
2. The legislature often stalemates, with neither side willing to budge
3. Voters have not studied the issue nor deliberated on it, as have legislators
4. It is not possible to compromise if an issue is on a ballot for a vote
5. Voters cannot be held accountable for their actions as legislators are held accountable

10. What settlement was reached on the issue of representation of states by the framers of the United States Constitution?

1. States represented in the Senate, population represented in the House
2. Population the basis for representation in both the Senate and the House
3. Each state has two seats in the Senate and eight seats in the House
4. A settlement could not be reached until the Eleventh Amendment was adopted

11. Generally speaking, did this lesson effect your ideas about the workings of democracy in the United States? Which of the following do you believe after going through this lesson?

1. There is more disagreement in America than people realize
2. We should not expect people to agree on what ought to be enacted into law
3. It may be necessary for two sides to compromise in order to reach a settlement
4. In the final analysis there's no better way to decide things than by majority vote
5. It is not easy to reach a settlement when people start off with different values or different interests
6. It is understandable that the legislative process moves as slowly as it does

1. It is the core lesson for an understanding of American government and politics.
2. The lesson is geared to state standards.
3. The lesson focuses on a few important points, rather than trying to do everything.
4. While it is designed to communicate knowledge, it also shapes democratic dispositions and fashions democratic skills.
5. Simulations engage the student and bring home the points that are being conveyed.
6. Debriefings ensure that the lesson is learned, even internalized.
7. A combination of personal, historical, and legislative simulations demonstrate the pervasiveness of disagreement, deliberation, negotiation, and votes, and serve to demystify legislative politics.
8. The value of "fairness" is given emphasis throughout the teaching of the lesson.
9. Comparisons are made to alternative political systems--autocracy and direct democracy.
10. The point is made that some issues may not be settled, because majorities cannot be put together.
11. The lesson, including simulations, debriefings, and wrap-up, are relatively easy for the teacher to administer.

A very useful resource for teachers and for students in AP courses in American government is the book, Republic On Trial: The Case For Representative Democracy, by Alan Rosenthal, John Hibbing, Burdett Loomis, and Karl Kurtz. It is published by CQ Press, 2003. For teachers who want to go further, see John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, Stealth Democracy, published by Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Materials published by the organizations sponsoring the "Appreciating Democracy" project are also very useful, as are the web sites of these organizations. The National Conference of State Legislatures has published several versions of Your Ideas Count!, which explains how representative democracy works. In 2002 a youth booklet was published explaining that: disagreement is a natural part of the legislative process: debate, negotiation and compromise are necessary; and students' chances of being heard are better when they join with a group of people who share their views. Also in 2002 a sixteen-minute youth video tells the story of five high school students who find out what happens when state lawmakers are in session. Again, emphasis is on disagreement, debate, compromise and advocacy. In 2003 the adult version of Your Ideas Count!, was published, challenging readers to think about how representative democracy works and relates to them. Also available are online lesson plans that relate to the above themes.

The Center for Civic Education in Calabasas, California has published three important volumes. In 1997 it published National Standards for Civics and Government. The latest edition of We the People...The Citizen and the Constitution, a study of the U.S. Constitution, was published in 2000. There are separate versions for elementary, middle and high school levels. The latest edition of We the People...Project Citizen, a framework for civic participation at the middle school level, was published in 2001.

The Center on Congress at Indiana University has published a number of materials about Congress including interactive e-learning modules.

A wide range of materials for instructional purposes is available on the following websites:

_____________________________
¹Currently we are beginning the preparation of a second lesson, on representation, which is one of the main jobs performed by individuals who are elected, political parties with which most Americans affiliate, and interest groups to which there out of four Americans belong.

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