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Energy, Science and Natural ResourcesInternational Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage, Reprocessing and Disposal
December 1996 13-Page Document Contents
Introduction: Waste Management and Regulatory Agencies Waste Management and Regulatory Agencies Waste Management and Regulatory Agencies Waste Management and Regulatory Agencies Waste Management and Regulatory Agencies
IntroductionSpent nuclear fuel is one of the waste products of nuclear power reactors that use fissile uranium and plutonium fission to produce electricity. After approximately three years, when the fuel no longer produces sufficient energy, the fuel is spent and replaced with new fuel. The spent fuel-considered high-level radioactive waste-is temporarily stored underwater in pools at the reactor site until it cools enough to be transported for disposal or reprocessing. The management of nuclear waste is a complex problem worldwide. Although the 12 "nuclear nations" have been addressing the issue, none has found a permanent disposal solution. This report was prepared at the request of the National Conference of State Legislatures' High-Level Radioactive Waste Interim Storage and Transportation Working Group. The working group addresses all issues related to U.S. spent nuclear fuel and felt it would be useful to understand what solutions other countries have considered and implemented. State legislators in the United States can assist the process of determining the best approach for dealing with spent fuel by being educated and informed. Toward that end, this report examines what Sweden, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom and Japan are doing regarding the storage and disposal of spent nuclear fuel. Given the dynamic nature of these programs and the time necessary for information to be translated and distributed abroad, the information about these programs may be somewhat dated; however, the overall strategies and specifics of the programs were correct at the time this document was researched. To allow further examination of this topic, a second report is planned that will summarize activity in additional countries and update progress in those countries covered in this report.
Spent Fuel ReprocessingBy reprocessing, the European and Asian nuclear industries have both reduced high-level radioactive waste volumes and quantities and recycled the uranium and plutonium to produce more energy. After reprocessing, about 3 percent of the original fuel quantity remains as high-level waste. Spent fuel contains recoverable materials-uranium and plutonium-that are used to manufacture new fuel rods for nuclear reactors. Reprocessing conserves natural resources by extending the life of available uranium resources, as well as saving substantial amounts of oil that would otherwise be used for energy production. For example, 1 gram of plutonium recycled for use in a mixed uranium/plutonium oxide (MOX) fuel assembly produces the same amount of electricity as 1 ton of oil. France, Switzerland and the United Kingdom currently reprocess their spent fuel and return the usable uranium and plutonium to the fuel cycle. Japan has its spent fuel reprocessed abroad. Sellafield in the United Kingdom and La Hague in France are chemical reprocessing plants that separate uranium and plutonium from spent fuel produced by their own countries and other countries. Reprocessing begins with removing the spent fuel assemblies from the storage pools and chopping them into small segments. The extracted nuclear material then is dissolved in acid solutions and the fission products are separated from the uranium and plutonium with solvents. After this purification process, the uranium is concentrated into nitrate for storage until it is converted to uranium oxide. It is then shipped to fuel plants for recycling. Similarly, the plutonium is converted to an oxide that is sealed in special containers, stored and ultimately transported to MOX fuel assembly fabrication plants. Workers perform these mechanical and chemical reprocessing operations using remote manipulators and automatic controls.
Recycled Plutonium: MOX FuelSeveral countries, including France and the United Kingdom, have developed technology to transform the plutonium in spent fuel into MOX fuel. The European advanced power water reactor, for example, will have the capability to burn 100 percent MOX fuel. Since 1963, approximately 400 tons of MOX fuel have been used in reactors around the world. Currently, 34 reactors are licensed to use MOX fuel and 25 others are in the licensing process. The principal benefits of the MOX option are conservation of uranium, minimization of high-level waste volumes and reduction of the world's separated plutonium inventory. Substitution of MOX for uranium in nuclear fuel can result in a net reduction in plutonium, since spent MOX fuel contains about 25 percent less plutonium than the original loading. Furthermore, a substantial part of this plutonium will be unsuitable for weapons use, thus furthering nonproliferation goals.
Waste Generated from Spent Fuel ReprocessingCurrent technologies for reprocessing spent fuel produces solid and liquid wastes that are treated in special waste treatment facilities. Three methods are used for safe storage and transport of the waste resulting from reprocessing-vitrification, concrete solidification or bituminization. Vitrification is used for the high-level radioactive wastes that are mainly fission products. The wastes are mixed with molten borosilicate glass to cause vitrification and are poured into leak-proof, stainless-steel canisters. The waste material is locked into the matrix of the glass as it cools, which ensures resistance to leaching. The canisters are stored in air-cooled storage pits pending shipment to a final geological repository. Concrete solidification refers to encapsulating fuel cladding and other contaminated structural materials in concrete and then packaging the concrete in stainless-steel drums. Wastes generated during nuclear plant operation also are encapsulated in concrete grout and packaged in prefabricated concrete containers. Waste volume may first be reduced by compaction or incineration. The bituminization process involves mixing a hydrocarbon such as tar with the waste and is applied to sludges generated by liquid waste treatment facilities. Similar to the other processes, the waste is stored in stainless-steel drums pending final disposal. After temporary storage at the reprocessing plant site, the packaged solidified wastes are shipped to repositories for permanent disposal. Wastes generated by reprocessing of spent fuel from other countries are returned to those countries. Reprocessing wastes that do not contain any long-lived radioactive materials are stored in above-ground repositories. High-level wastes are usually placed in deep geologic formations for permanent disposal.
Other OptionsIn addition to direct disposal or MOX options, European countries also are researching the use of "fast neutron reactor" technology-or actinide burning-to use high-level waste for energy production. Development of this technology, which could significantly decrease the amount of radioactive waste, has been a long-term project that demonstrates the international communities' ongoing commitment to seek new alternatives to spent fuel disposal. Not all nuclear nations choose to reprocess spent fuel. Sweden and the United States regard the spent fuel as waste and intend to store it for several decades until some of the radioactivity has decayed. After extended storage, they then plan to dispose of the spent fuel in underground repositories. Additionally, some countries choose not to reprocess spent fuel because the cost of raw uranium is much lower than the cost of reprocessing.
SwedenSweden's first commercial nuclear reactor was commissioned in 1969. Today, 12 reactors at four electricity-generating nuclear power stations produce more than 46 percent of the nation's electricity. A national referendum in 1980 led the Swedish Parliament to phase out nuclear power by 2010, which is the estimated end of the operating life of the reactors that now are providing energy. Because of the Parliament's action, Sweden has decided not to reprocess fuel and instead planned to dispose of its spent fuel as waste. A commission formed in 1995, however, found that a complete phase-out of nuclear power in Sweden by 2010 is neither environmentally nor economically feasible but did advocate phasing out nuclear power in the future and recommended that the process should be started at "an early stage." Sweden is, therefore, addressing the issue of storage and disposal of spent fuel. The Swedish government passed the Stipulation Law in 1977, which was amended by the 1984 Act on Nuclear Activities. The law requires owners of nuclear power plants to be responsible for the safe handling and final disposal of all wastes from nuclear power generation. Before a reactor can be commissioned, the owner must demonstrate an acceptable method for the safe handling and disposal of spent fuel. The four utilities that own and operate nuclear reactors in Sweden formed the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Management Company (SKB) to fulfill these obligations. It is the responsibility of the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate to oversee the act.
Waste Management and Regulatory AgenciesThree agencies within the Swedish Ministry of the Environment and Energy regulate and supervise nuclear power production and radioactive waste management. The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate's (SKI) role is similar to that of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission-supervision of nondefense nuclear activities. SKI reviews the research and development plans of SKB and licenses nuclear power plants and disposal sites. SKI oversees and regulates security at nuclear facilities, as well as during transports, processing, storage and final disposal of radioactive waste. SKI is also responsible for administering the funds set up to finance the management of radioactive waste. The National Institute of Radiation Protection regulates radiation hazards to protect power plant employees and neighboring populations; the institute also prepares emergency response plans for potential nuclear accidents. The Financing Act ensures that those operating the nuclear power plants also take economical responsibility for future waste management. For instance, a fee per kilowatt hour of electricity generated is charged-roughly equivalent to a few cents-to pay for the cost of nuclear waste management. After the facilities close and are decommissioned, the government assumes responsibility from the utilities and SKB for safety at waste facilities.
Research, Development and Demonstration Programme (RD&D Programme)The RD&D Programme 1992, developed by SKB, is a strategy focused on the deep disposal of encapsulated spent nuclear fuel. Once the results of this initial disposal can be evaluated, a decision will be made on how and when regular disposition of additional spent fuel will occur. At the end of 1992, the programme was focused on the planning, design and siting of a plant for encapsulation of spent fuel and a deep repository. The RD&D programmes are periodically updated by SKB to reflect advancements in the various components of the strategy. A supplement to RD&D '92 was done in 1994 and the programme has been amended several times.
Central Interim Storage: CLABThe Swedes plan to store their spent fuel for 30 or 40 years in a central interim storage facility called CLAB. Commissioned in 1985 and owned by SKB, CLAB is located on the Baltic coast near the Oskarshamn power plant. CLAB presently has a 3,000 metric ton (3,308 U.S.) capacity and two planned additions to hold the expected 7,800 metric tons (8,600 U.S.) of spent fuel.
Permanent RepositorySKB plans a repository in which encapsulated spent fuel is deposited in crystalline bedrock approximately 500 meters (1,640 feet) underground. Once the repository is full, the shafts and tunnels will be backfilled and sealed. No surveillance or monitoring is planned for this repository. The actual siting of a Swedish deep repository involves several steps and is planned to take place during the 1990s and into the 21st century. The siting steps are: General studies that provide background information on geological, technical, environmental and societal conditions needed to consider a site. These studies result in data useful for deciding whether municipalities, for instance, are suitable for further studies. Feasibility studies that examine the prospects for a deep repository in potentially suitable and interested municipalities. These studies do not involve actual borehole investigations. Although no formal permits are required, feasibility studies generally are conducted in cooperation with a specific municipality. Two feasibility studies are currently in progress in Sweden and five to 10 more are planned to identify sites that are suitable for further investigations. Site investigations will provide data for safety assessments and environmental impact assessments in two chosen sites. Investigations are based on experience from the Stripa and Äspö study sites discussed below. Detailed characterizations will analyze the geoscientific factors of one site, including investigations at the planned repository depth from a tunnel or shaft. This step will provide the data necessary for a siting permit application and construction license. SKB is investigating potential disposal sites-focusing on the bedrock quality, demographics, transportation considerations and regional economics. Part of this investigation involves detailed investigation and calculation of rock conditions through ongoing comprehensive field tests at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. The project entered the operational phase in 1995 and is being coordinated internationally; Finland, Canada, Japan, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and France are collaborating in the project. RD&D '92 invited local communities to "volunteer" for consideration as a potential repository site. Of six communities originally interested in being considered for a repository site, only two-Mala and Storuman-decided to allow SKB to carry out feasibility studies. Storuman's feasibility study was completed in January 1995; however, the community voted against continuing the process in a September 1995 referendum. The Mala feasibility study was completed in March 1996; the municipality also voted to end discussions with SKB.
Low- and Intermediate-Level Waste RepositoryThe Swedish Final Repository for Radioactive Waste (SFR), commissioned in 1988, is located near the Forsmark nuclear power station on the east coast of Sweden, 50 meters below the bed of the Baltic Sea. SFR, owned by SKB, is designed to hold all the low- and intermediate-level waste produced by Swedish nuclear power stations, hospitals, industries and research institutions. The waste is surrounded by both engineered and natural barriers, and experts claim the facility itself is surrounded by virtually stagnant groundwater. The design currently does not include techniques to seal the repository in 2010 when it is projected to be full, nor does it incorporate pre- and post-closure retrievability or post-closure monitoring.
Radioactive Waste TransportationA safe transportation system is a vital link in any waste management system. Since all 12 Swedish nuclear power stations are in coastal locations, waste can be directly and safely shipped to CLAB and SFL by sea. SKB owns a specially-built transport ship, the M/S Sigyn, specially-built transport containers and special equipment for loading and unloading the ship. The M/S Sigyn can carry 10 casks that each hold about 3 metric tons of spent fuel.
SwitzerlandSwitzerland's five nuclear power plants produce approximately 39 percent of the country's electricity. The Federal Government Ruling on the Atomic Act of 1978 required that the nuclear utilities plan a waste disposal project by Dec. 31, 1985, or lose their operating licenses. Similarly, a 1979 law directs officials to guarantee "permanent safe management and final disposal" of radioactive waste as a prerequisite to future development of nuclear energy uses in Switzerland. Swiss officials are revising the atomic law with two aims: simplifying the permitting process for exploratory field work for repository projects and strengthening nonproliferation laws. The latter was accomplished in February 1995 and proposals concerning permitting procedures were expected by late 1996.
Waste Management and Regulatory AgenciesTwo federal departments regulate nuclear waste management in Switzerland. The Federal Institute for Reactor Research (EIR), a division of the Department of Interior, concentrates on research and development in radioactive waste management. The Nuclear Safety Division (ASK), within the Department of Energy and Transport, develops criteria and guidelines for waste management, and licenses and inspects nuclear waste faciliities. The National Cooperative for the Storage of Radioactive Waste (NAGRA), established in 1972, is a coalition of the Swiss nuclear utilities and the Swiss Confederation's Office of Public Health within the Department of the Interior. NAGRA provides for safe disposal of radioactive wastes produced by the nuclear industry. NAGRA operates an underground research laboratory and is concentrating its efforts on geophysics, geohydrology, rock permeability and tectonics. NAGRA also will supervise the construction and operation of a repository. Swiss electricity rates include fees to cover the costs of research and development as well as waste disposal. A board of directors and a technical commission consisting of government and utility representatives collect and disperse fees to NAGRA or to the Nuclear Waste Management Cooperative Wellenberg (GNW), created in 1994 to construct and operate the low-level waste repository. The company is directed by the electric utilities and the local government, while operational management of the facility is under the direction of the central Swiss electricity utility and NAGRA.
Interim StorageZwischenlager Wuerenlingen AG (ZWILAG), a consortium of Swiss nuclear utilities, was created to provide interim storage for spent fuel, high-level waste, and low- and medium-level wastes. The facility was voter-approved in 1989 and will be managed by the local council and the nuclear utilities. Construction began in 1992 and is still underway.
Low-Level and Short-Lived Intermediate-Level Waste DisposalSwitzerland's dense population prevents shallow land burial of any radioactive waste. Instead, these wastes will be disposed in a cavern system carved from a suitable host rock formation. To select a disposal site, NAGRA examined possible host rocks according to hydrogeological criteria and selected 20, which were ultimately narrowed to four: Bois de la Glaive, Oberbauenstock, Piz Pian Grand and Wellenberg. Because the Wellenberg site can host both a horizontally-accessible repository for low- and short-lived intermediate-level waste and a vertically-accessible repository cavern for long-lived intermediate-level waste at a depth of 300 meters, NAGRA recommended it in late 1993. In June 1994, GNW submitted the license application and accompanying safety and environmental information for a low- and short-lived intermediate-level waste repository at the Wellenberg site.
High-Level and Long-Lived Intermediate-Level Waste DisposalSwitzerland has no naturally-occurring uranium ore and generally must import fuel from other countries. Also, the spent reactor fuel is reprocessed in France and Great Britain to recycle usable material. The reprocessing wastes are kept in interim storage for 30 to 40 years and eventually will be placed in deep geologic Swiss repository-most likely in crystalline rock or sedimentary formations. As a condition for the extension of operational licenses for nuclear power plants beyond 1985, the Department of Transport, Communication and Energy (EVED) demanded that NAGRA develop a project guaranteeing the feasibility and safety of final disposal for existing nuclear power plant wastes. NAGRA developed Project Gewähr, a model repository system at a depth of approximately 1,200 meters in the crystalline bedrock in northern Switzerland, and submitted it to EVED in January 1985. In June 1988, after a thorough safety review, the government determined that final disposal safety and feasibility had been proven for all waste categories. Before final repository site confirmation, a deep underground rock laboratory will be required at the potential repository site. The Grimsel test site, located in the Swiss Alps, has been established for testing and developing investigation techniques and equipment. Grimsel is situated in granite beneath the Juchlistock massif, about 1 kilometer inside the mountain at an elevation of 1,730 meters above sea-level. Grimsel, in operation since 1983, is used for research on the effects of final disposition of high-level waste in crystalline granite. Extensive tests covering hydrology and geomechanics have been underway since 1984. Experiments are conducted in collaboration with Germany, Japan, the United States, Sweden, France and Spain.
FranceFrance launched a major nuclear power program in 1974. By the end of 1988, 55 reactors were in operation. Today, approximately 76 percent of France's electricity is generated by nuclear reactors and the French nuclear industry is involved in all stages of the fuel cycle, including spent fuel reprocessing. Radioactive waste management is governed by the Protection of the Environment and the Recovery and Disposal of Waste Act of 1975. The act requires any waste producer to arrange and pay for its disposal at an approved facility. The act prohibits storage of the foreign waste longer than necessary for reprocessing. The Waste Management Act also mandates that authorities develop at least two underground test sites-one in crystalline rock and the other in a sedimentary formation-before selecting a repository site. In May 1996, the government authorized feasibility studies for potential test sites at three specific locations: Marcoule in Gard, Gure in Meuse and La Chappelle-Baton in Vienne. The studies are expected to be completed in 1998.
Waste Management and Regulatory AgenciesThe National Agency for Radioactive Waste Management (ANDRA) is a public service company regulated by the Ministries of Environment, Industry and Research. ANDRA is responsible for the long-term management of all radioactive wastes, including the design, siting, construction and operation of disposal facilities. Additionally, ANDRA is responsible for ensuring that radioactive wastes meet technical specifications for treatment and storage. The Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) is responsible for program, research and implementation for nuclear energy and weapons development. The CEA's Institute for Nuclear Safety (IPSN) is responsible for safety-related research; the Ministry of Health monitors radioactive releases; and the Directorate for Safety in Nuclear Installations (DSIN) develops basic safety and technical rules, which are based in part on IPSN and Health Ministry recommendations. Licensing for nuclear installations are the responsibility of the Prime Minister's Office. The French Parliament also is involved in repository licensing.
Spent Fuel ReprocessingCogema is the only company in the world that provides services-including extensive environmental monitoring-for every step of the nuclear fuel cycle. Since opening in 1966, Cogema's La Hague plant near Cherbourg has reprocessed fuel from three reactor types: gas-cooled, fast breeder and light water. Since 1987, it has been dedicated to reprocessing French light reactor fuel, as well as fuel from Japan, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.
High-Level Waste DisposalCurrently, high-level long-lived waste is temporarily stored at reactor sites. Dry storage facilities for these wastes also exist at the reprocessing centers. Eventually, high-level waste, in the form of glass logs, will be permanently disposed in a deep geologic repository. Four potential areas for a repository, each with a specific geological formation, have been selected for preliminary study: clay in the northern part of the Parisian Basin (Aisne), granite (Deux-Sevres) and shale (Maine-et-Loire) in western France; and salt in eastern France (Ain). ANDRA has begun researching each geologic category with funds from the waste producers. ANDRA will direct the construction of three underground high-level waste research laboratories. One site is in a clay formation straddling the Meuse and Haute-Marne areas and two are in granite formations in the Gard and the Vienne areas. Because of the unavailability of sufficient geological information to judge their potential as repositories, the two granite sites have not yet received endorsement from a scientific commission that monitors implementation of France's nuclear waste R&D law. Selection of the final repository, however, is expected to be made by Parliament by 2006.
TransportationSpent fuel and high-level waste generally is shipped by rail within France, although trucks carry the materials shorter distances. Ships transport the materials in steel casks between coasts.
United KingdomThe first nuclear power reactor in the United Kingdom (U.K.) was commissioned in 1956. Today, the U.K. has 34 operating reactors that produce approximately 26 percent of the country's electricity. Nuclear power is likely to remain an important part of the electricity industry. Experts estimate that by 2000, however, 44,000 metric tons of radioactive waste will have accumulated.
Waste Management and Regulatory AgenciesPlutonium used in the U.K. for nondefense purposes is subject to Euratom safeguards and all U.K. nuclear power plants have been under voluntary International Atomic Energy Act (IAEA) inspection since 1976. The Nuclear Installations Inspectorate is responsible for licensing nuclear facilities. The Department of Environment develops waste management strategies and coordinates research and development. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food is responsible for the actual regulation of waste management.
Spent Fuel ReprocessingBritish Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL), a state-owned corporation, operates the Sellafield reprocessing plant for recycling domestic and foreign spent fuel. Sellafield is located in Cumbria, which is just south of Scotland and east of the Irish Sea. Additionally, Sellafield is designed to test geological and hydrogeological conditions for a potential underground rock repository for low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste. Sellafield is adding new processing facilities. The thermal oxide reprocessing plant (THORP), began partial operation in March 1994, and active commissioning of the chemical separations plant began in January 1995. BNFL expects THORP's commissioning program will take up to two years to complete. BNFL also has approved plans to build a conversion plant at Sellafield for reprocessed uranium from the THORP reprocessing plant.
Low- and Intermediate-Level Waste DisposalThe majority of low-level waste in the U.K. is lightly-contaminated rubbish that results from the nuclear industry daily operations. Since 1959, low-level waste has been routinely disposed in shallow burial sites, operated by BNFL, at the Drigg facility in Cumbria. U.K. intermediate-level waste is about 1,000 times less radioactive than high-level waste. It consists of irradiated fuel cladding, reactor components, chemical process residues, ion exchange resins, filters, and items and materials contaminated with plutonium. BNFL plans to build a major new plant for treating intermediate-level waste at its Sellafield site. This "Drypac" plant will use a process developed by BNFL to convert liquid radioactive waste into dry material that then can be super-compacted, mixed with concrete and stored, and ultimately disposed of in stainless steel drums. The plant is scheduled to be in operation in 2002. Government policy requires that low- and intermediate-level waste be disposed as soon as possible to avoid costly and extensive storage requirements. Until 1982, certain categories of intermediate-level and low-level waste were disposed of in the deep ocean. In 1982, the nuclear industry formed the Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Executive to manage intermediate and low-level wastes. This organization became United Kingdom Nirex Ltd. (UK NIREX). Currently, UK NIREX is planning to establish a deep underground repository that will accept waste for about 50 years. Planning and construction of an underground laboratory near Sellafield is under way. This "rock characterization facility" (RCF) will provide data on the geological and hydrogeological characteristics of the potential repository host rocks and overlying strata for long-term safety assessment purposes, repository design and site selection. Approximately 10 years of research is planned for the RCF; UK NIREX estimates that a repository will be ready for operation in 2010.
High-Level Waste DisposalThe U.K. classification of high-level waste is reserved for the most radioactive wastes resulting from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, as well as the spent fuel itself. Because high-level waste produces significant quantities of heat, special precautions must be taken in its storage and disposal. BNFL has responsibility for high-level waste. Currently, it is stored in liquid form at Sellafield. The waste will be incorporated into glass, or vitrified, to provide a suitable form for disposal. Following vitrification, the waste will be stored for at least 50 years to reduce the production of heat by radioactive decay, then disposed of in a deep repository.
TransportationSpent nuclear fuel has been safely transported from power stations to the Sellafield reprocessing plant since the early days of the nuclear industry. Low-level waste also has been safely transported to the Drigg disposal site for 30 years. The safety of the transportation containers has been demonstrated by full-scale tests. Using historical data from successful transportation methods, UK NIREX is developing a range of standard containers for low- and intermediate-level wastes. The casks are designed to meet IAEA standards for impact and fire resistance.
JapanThe first Japanese nuclear power plant began operating in 1966. Currently, 50 nuclear reactors operate in Japan and provide approximately 32 percent of the country's electricity. Both the government and the utilities believe Japan's scarce resources justify the use of nuclear power. The scarcity of resources is also the justification for reprocessing spent fuel, including MOX fuel fabrication.
Waste Management and Regulatory AgenciesNuclear energy is regulated under the Prime Minister's Office by several entities. The Science and Technology Agency (STA) houses the Atomic Energy Bureau and Nuclear Safety Bureau. The Safety Bureau is responsible for the regulation of reactors, nuclear materials and radioisotopes, prevention of hazards resulting from the use of nuclear energy and other matters related to nuclear safety. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) is responsible for promoting and regulating Japan's ambitious nuclear power program. The Public Utility Department is located in the Agency of Natural Resources and Energy, within the MITI. The Japan Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), chaired by the Minister of the STA, formulates national policy on nuclear energy issues including reactor decommissioning policies. These AEC policies are implemented by STA and MITI.
Spent Fuel ReprocessingJapan's policy is to reuse the plutonium from spent nuclear fuel in fast breeder and light-water reactors. A pilot plant in Tokai Ibaraki Prefecture, near Tokyo, has reprocessed approximately 400 tons of fuel since 1977. A new facility, Rokkasho, will be able to reprocess 800 tons annually. Since current domestic reprocessing capability is insufficient, spent fuel also is sent to France for reprocessing at Cogema's La Hague facility. Another reprocessing plant is under construction near the village of Rokkasho, Aomori Prefecture, at the far northern end of Honshu. The plant, which covers nearly 400 hectares, will house facilities for enriching uranium, storing and reprocessing spent fuel, and disposing or storing of low-level waste, which is now stored mostly at nuclear power stations. Operations of the Rokkasho plant are shared, depending on the function. The Japan Nuclear Fuel Service Company reprocesses spent fuel. Fuel enrichment and low-level waste storage will be handled by the Japan Nuclear Fuel Industries Co. Rokkasho's enrichment plant is estimated to cost $1.4 billion (U.S. dollars) and will be capable of reprocessing or enriching 1,500 tons of uranium annually-approximately 30 percent of Japan's consumption. The reprocessing plant is expected to supply all of Japan's plutonium reactors and is expected to start operation in 2003. The entire complex is estimated to cost $6.5 billion (U.S. dollars). In addition to the Rokkasho plant, the Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation's (PNC) recovered uranium conversion facility converts uranium recovered from fuel reprocessing into uranium hexafluoride, ready for reenrichment. Reenrichment tests should begin in early 1997.
Disposal of High-Level WastePNC is responsible for disposal of high-level waste, although a permanent disposal site has not been chosen. Studies on geological disposal are taking place at Rokkasho. Japan's high-level waste disposal policy is to vitrify the waste, store it underground for 30 to 50 years and ultimately dispose of it at a depth of several hundred meters in geologic formations. Storage facilities for the waste are being built rapidly, leaving some with doubts as to their actual safety. Although local residents are skeptical, officials stress that storage sites will not simply be converted to disposal sites.
TransportationUntil the reprocessing plant at Rokkasho is operating, Japan's nuclear power industry will depend on fuel that is reprocessed at Sellafield in England and La Hague in France. Ten Japanese utilities, for instance, have reprocessing contracts with the French company, Cogema. Transportation of these materials, however, has involved Tokyo in a series of international conflicts. Japan's original proposal-air transport of plutonium-failed because of objections from the United States. Because the fuel originated from U.S. uranium, its movement is subject to U.S. controls. Also, flights between Europe and Japan would have passed over U.S. territory. Transport by sea, therefore, is the only remaining option. Japan's Maritime Safety Agency is responsible for escorting the plutonium. Countries along the planned sea route, however, will not receive advance notification of the transport. As many as 30 nations have expressed concern, refused passageway for the shipments or have asked that they be stopped. Japan has continued with the shipments, however, and has made more than 140 shipments of spent fuel from Japan to Europe since 1969.
ConclusionThe issue of storage and disposal of radioactive waste is a complex and difficult one that all nuclear nations are struggling to solve. Currently, countries are using various forms of interim storage until a repository site is chosen. Based on various natural resources available and many other factors, each country determines the feasibility of reprocessing spent fuel. Countries differ on their strategies, based upon differing political, social and economic concerns. Comparing these differing strategies demonstrates that no one strategy is right for all nations. Finally, despite the advances being made today, this will continue to be a problem to be addressed by future generations.
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